Tibet is situated in the Himalayan region, historically, ethnically, and geographically considered a part of China for centuries.
It’s home to around 3.18 million people and is renowned as the “roof of the world” due to its high elevation. Tibet shares borders with Nepal, Bhutan, Aksai China, India, and Pakistan through Xinjiang.
The boundary between Chinese Tibet and the Indian subcontinent was defined in 1914 through an agreement between the British secretary McMahon and the Tibetan government’s head, Satra Lonchen. This line, known as the McMahon Line, measured 550 miles (890 km) on the map at a scale of 8 miles per inch.
Until 1935, the McMahon Line was largely forgotten. However, tensions reemerged when Caroe Olaf, a British bureaucrat in India, presented a map based on the McMahon-Lanchen negotiations. China and India disputed this map, with China claiming a 65,000 square kilometer area in Ladakh.
China argues that when the McMahon Line was established, Tibet wasn’t an independent state. Nevertheless, after India gained independence in 1947, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru fostered strong relations with Chinese leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. Consequently, issues related to Tibet and Ladakh remained unresolved.
However, when a political crisis erupted in Tibet, India provided refuge to the Dalai Lama. This led to escalating tensions between India and China over Ladakh and Kashmir. In 1962, the Sino-Indian War took place, lasting from October 20 to November 21, in which China emerged victorious, occupying 11,754 square kilometers of Ladakh.
This defeat exposed India’s military weaknesses and Nehru’s inability to assess its competition accurately. Three years later, in September 1965, the second Indo-Pak war occurred. It lasted 17 days and mainly took place in West Pakistan and Kashmir. Pakistan faced India’s larger military but managed to hold a ceasefire in Sindh, Punjab, Sialkot, and Kashmir, earning notable victories.
This war differed from the 1947-48 conflict, as both nations possessed a common military history from their pre-independence days. Pakistan’s spirited response to the conflict rallied the nation, with citizens contributing to the war effort. However, the war concluded under intense international pressure, and the Tashkent Agreement was signed in 1966, mandating the return of armies to pre-war positions.
Nevertheless, disagreements emerged between President Ayub Khan and Foreign Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto regarding the Tashkent Agreement. Bhutto advocated for a new ceasefire line in Kashmir as per UN resolutions, but Khan did not share this view. Bhutto eventually resigned from his position, leading to the formation of the Pakistan People’s Party.
Following these conflicts, regional and global conspiracies targeted Pakistan’s development and stability. China’s occupation of Ladakh continued, and the country invested heavily in the region. The geopolitical landscape was further complicated by the United States and the Soviet Union’s attitudes toward Pakistan.
The death of Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri after the Tashkent Agreement raised questions, with some speculating that he may have been poisoned. India’s leadership transitioned to Indira Gandhi, who later orchestrated the secession of East Pakistan in 1971.
In summary, these historical events illustrate the complex dynamics in the region, including territorial disputes, military conflicts, and international influences. Pakistan faced significant challenges in maintaining its sovereignty and security amidst these geopolitical developments.